How Were Markets and Fairs an Important Part of Medieval Life

Lesly Kurian 8 June 2007 â€Å"First of all, there are the peddlers who offer food to the general population, the brew venders, the publicans, and afterward the weavers. Not far-removed are the drapers, and afterward the material sellers’ pitch. At that point the open space where they sell uncured skins and wool†¦Here comes the individuals driving the creatures dairy animals, bulls, ewes and pigs, and men selling ponies, as well as can be expected purchase, female horses, foals, and palfreys, reasonable for checks and rulers. † Many individuals came to purchase things from business sectors and fairs, including the thirteenth century writer who portrayed a run of the mill advertise (Pierre and Sabbagh 54).Markets were critical to every day life on the grounds that the vast majority of the things individuals purchased there, they couldn’t develop or make themselves. Individuals additionally got by selling products there. Going to business sectors likewise allo wed individuals to see merchandise delivered in different towns (MacDonald 8). Markets were held once per week and ordinarily went on for a day or two (9). Since numerous towns were worked close to waterways, dealers could without much of a stretch come to them and set up slows down and tents (Grant). In the focal point of town, there was an enormous space for slows down to be set up. In affluent towns, markets were held in fantastic corridors or secured by a canvas rooftop from the weather.In the market, authorities checked and estimated things and recognized phony cash (Mac Donald 9). Traders sold an amazing assortment of things for every day life; food, utensils, apparatuses, apparel, craftsmanship, and brushes (â€Å"Markets and Fairs†, MacDonald 8). Rich shippers set up slows down to sell these things. Be that as it may, workers who came to sell their merchandise couldn’t manage the cost of slows down, so they had to show on the ground. Much more terrible, they ne eded to cover an expense on the off chance that they showed on the ground (â€Å"Markets and Fairs†)! Odd notions were solid in business sectors too!In a run of the mill advertise, a cross or sacred sculpture was put in the inside to shield clients from any peril (MacDonald 9)! In the long run, dealers began visiting and exchanging different regions. By the twelfth century, many became dealers and utilized ships on exchange courses (Langley 46). Most brokers utilized boats since they could convey huge loads over a significant distance versus trucks on streets (Grant, MacDonald 11). Things as a rule moved on ships were fleece, metals, lumber, oil, wine, and salt (â€Å"Markets and Fairs†). As exchange expanded, significant manors and urban areas got rich. New towns were made during the High Middle Ages as a result of this colossal wealth.Some even got autonomous of a ruler or king’s rule by settling him a duty (Langley 48). As new towns were made, the populace de veloped and a few towns developed into significant urban areas, similar to Paris, Venice, London, and Florence. The expansion of exchange likewise gave occupations to numerous and helped spread thoughts around the globe. Urban areas regularly became contacts and partners along these lines (MacDonald 10). One gathering of contacts was known as the Hanseatic League. It connected more than 100 towns with one another. This gathering commanded Northern European exchange from the thirteenth to the fifteenth hundreds of years (Pierre and Sabbagh 54, Grant).Trading among towns drove approach to fairs. Fairs were extremely extraordinary events since individuals got the opportunity to take a gander at and purchase outside and costly things not sold at business sectors (MacDonald 9). They allowed individuals to take a break from day by day life and have fun. They were held once every year on a saint’s feast day (Langley 54). Fairs were typically situated on the edges of town in light of the fact that there was sufficient meadow for dealers to set up their tents and eat their creatures (MacDonald 9). Dealers from various grounds sold claim to fame things at fairs.Valuable hides, for example, lynx and panther, were well known. Individuals likewise looked into exceptional nourishments like pig meat and onions. Instruments and weapons were likewise accessible (Pierre and Sabbagh 54). Amusement and rewards was likewise a huge piece of fairs. Performers, stunts men, trapeze artists and artists performed there. Betting was likewise part of fairs. Men wager on who might win a battle; grapplers and pooches against bears and cockfights were well known (â€Å"Markets and Fairs†). Rewards, particularly during blistering climate, were agreeable. Pastry specialists and brewers served pies, or chewets, and lager (Langley 54).There was exceptional reasonable called the Fairs of Champagne, in France. It went on all through the entire year without stop. Vendors, brokers, and clients the same all ran there to sell and purchase products. Sadly, it finished during war in the fifteenth century (Pierre and Sabbagh 54). As should be obvious, markets and fairs during Medieval Times were a significant piece of every day life. They gave required things to life and periodic extravagances, as well. Be that as it may, not every person acknowledged markets and fairs. Ministers frequently grumbled that fairs were hung on blessed days so individuals would shop rather than pray!They likewise accepted that business sectors and fairs were places that individuals trespassed the most; reviling, gloating, lying and contending all occurred there (MacDonald 9). Envision that! Reference index Grant, Neil. Regular daily existence in Medieval Europe. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media, 2001. Langley, Andrew. Medieval Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. MacDonald, Fiona. Town Life. North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media: 2005. Pierre, Michel and Morgan-Antoine Sabbagh. Europe in the Middle Ages. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Silver Burdett Press, 1998. N/A. â€Å"Markets and Fairs† N/A. On the web. http://www. xtec. es/crle/02/middle_ages/alumne/record. htm. 20 May 2007.

Hamilton and Jefferson Discussion

To start this examination, it will be significant that both Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson had their individual contrasts in philosophies particularly in the perspective and strategically. Therefore, the examination rushed to uncover that there were immense contrasts in the projects they began when they were in government.Advertising We will compose a custom basic composing test on Hamilton and Jefferson Discussion explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Their family foundation could have been a deciding component to every one of their program thinking about that Jefferson originated from a wealthier and highborn family contrasted with Hamilton’s family. What's more, Jefferson was at one time a pioneer of Democratic-Republican Party while Hamilton served under the initiative of Federal Party. The political contrasts were the significant wellspring of the contempt the two had with respect to their projects. To begin with, Hamilton favored a solid focal g overnment. Therefore, his program developed around issues to fortify the legislature. That is the reason he was resolved to settle the obligations on the legislature before dealing with a more grounded focal government. In such manner, Hamilton concocted methods for settling the obligations in which the residents should get a few protections in type of cling to enable the legislature to take care of the obligations. The budgetary program was the focal job of Hamilton as he engaged the neighborhood rural division and banking segment to overwhelm the British exchanging exercises the United States. This prompted inception of Bank of United States and Central Bank that was like that in the United Kingdom. This diminished over dependence to British government. Then again, Jefferson was a severe constructionist strategically and he had confidence in feeble focal government. His program spearheaded to advocate the states’ right and common freedoms. This implied his program was inten ded to enable the individuals not at all like the Hamilton’s program that given the focal government the force. The weight to advocate for people’s nearness can be identified with a portion of the announcements made by Jefferson. For example he stated, â€Å"A government sufficiently large to gracefully all that you need is sufficiently large to take all that you have. The course of history shows that as a legislature develops, freedom decreases† (Dolbeare, Cummings, 2009, p. 150).Advertising Looking for basic composition on political theories? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More also, â€Å"The two adversaries of the individuals are hoodlums and government, so let us secure the second with the chains of the constitution so the second won't become the legitimized rendition of the first† (Dolbeare, Cummings, 2009, p. 151). The above projects introduced two unique thoughts that require basic examination b efore embracing any of them. Be that as it may, the Hamilton’s program was and still the favored program since it prompted monetary autonomy in the United States. The presentation of banking and settling the past obligations helped the United States to recuperate monetarily. What's more, the focal government has been essential decision this super force country. All the more in this way, the Jefferson’s program had a few issues liable to support the residents yet his proffered government was not material in the United States. There has been inclination of solid focal governments that can back different projects, for example, wellbeing, training, security among others. Along these lines, it was normal that frail government couldn't be done subsequently the expanded disdain between the two chiefs. From the above projects, it appeared that the present American government has been focused at the Hamilton’s program. This think of numerous accomplishments to the United States as it appreciates the worldwide nearness in banking, and reinforcing of the legislature. Indeed, it is among the super force countries dependent on the administration accomplishment. In spite of the pundits and hostility from Jefferson, Hamilton’s program had gone past a dream on brought together financial nation. Reference Dolbeare, K.M., Cummings, M. S. (2009). American Political Thought (sixth ed.). Washington, D.C.: CQ Press.Advertising We will compose a custom basic composing test on Hamilton and Jefferson Discussion explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More This basic composition on Hamilton and Jefferson Discussion was composed and put together by client Cruz U. to help you with your own examinations. You are allowed to utilize it for research and reference purposes so as to compose your own paper; in any case, you should refer to it likewise. You can give your paper here.

8,726,400 SOS A Smile Worth 1,550 Words

8,726,400 SOS A Smile Worth 1,550 Words *written by Mariam D. 20 as a part of the 8,726,400 Seconds of Summer guest post series* A few dozen children stand fidgeting in lines before us, their eyes squinting in the glare of the merciless sun. There’s a myriad of expressions on their different faces that I’m trying to decipher. Most children are excited, smiling shyly. Some have an expectant look (maybe they’ve caught a glimpse of the soccer balls). Some are simply curious. And then there are the blank stares the heavy gazes of large eyes that have tasted a life beyond what my sheltered palate can even imagine. The solemn looks that you can’t prepare for. The looks that instinctively stop you in your tracks because it doesn’t make sense for that emptiness to be emanating from such a small human being. We had just stepped out of the bus that had brought us from our hotel in Amman. As our shoes fell upon a dusty ground surrounding the orphanage for Syrian refugees, the children sang a welcoming song in Arabic for us. The head of our group began to use the translator to address them. He had been coming to this orphanage, giving donations, and implementing new programs for multiple years now. Before getting off of the bus he had reminded us; these children had just lost their parents, their homes, and their country. I thought it would be only reasonable for them to lose their hope too. However, when we were outside he asked “Who is happy here?” Milliseconds after the translated version was relayed, the children broke out in a cheer and their hands shot up. “What makes you happy?” Some children climbed over each other and raised their hands in the classic “Pick me! Pick me!” way. A little boy was chosen. He had flaxen hair but skin tanned by the sun. He also wore a wide, toothy smile. He said to the translator, “I’m happy because I’m learning to memorize the Qur’an.” He then recited a part of it to us with a voice uniquely both delicate and strong. His delight in something so simple. His unbroken faith despite everything. I was shocked. I knew then and there that while I might be giving out supplies, building bathrooms, and helping to treat people on this volunteering trip, I would also be gaining something substantial. This was hour 1 of day 1 of a week that was somehow as beautiful, inspiring, and reassuring as it was heart-wrenching, heavy, and concerning. Standing in front of those children, with my clothes being flicked around by a familiar feverish wind and bright, photo-bleached blotches covering my view when I closed my eyes, I knew I was back in Jordan (and I honestly say this with an affection that startles me). I guess I should backtrack a little. Last summer, I did MISTI Jordan, working at a pharmaceutical company. That summer was, in short, an amazing epilogue to freshman year, an adventure featuring the expected moments (floating in the dead sea), the treasured moments (sprawled on the pitch black sand in Wadi Rum, gazing at shooting stars for the first time with a friend who is no longer with us), and the wild moments (like being stranded at a border and having a meeting with an ambassador coincidentally right before an attempted stabbing). An array of experiences indeed, but there was something missing from my 9-to-5 that I couldn’t quite put a finger on until my first day volunteering. This year, I returned to the area that I grew so fond of with a different purpose. I came as a volunteer with an organization called Rahbar Trust, a charity co-founded by Dr. Usman Mustafa, an interventional cardiologist, under the belief that helping those who need help is not an option; it is an obligation. For years, Rahbar Trust has been doing extremely valuable humanitarian work, such as sourcing small interest-free loans, holding eye surgery clinics, and organizing major relief trips in the U.S., Jordan, and Pakistan for refugees and those living in poverty. This year, for one week, we serviced Syrian refugee camps and orphanages across Jordan, from south of the Dead Sea to the doorstep of the Syrian border. On that first day in the orphanages, after taking in the state of everything for a little bit and visiting the tiny classrooms, we sat down and colored with some children. Most of them quickly crowded all the new supplies, but there were a few who solemnly and silently watched at first. My broken and extremely formal Arabic (thanks Harvard) limited our communication partially, however I still had some grammatically atrocious but meaningful conversations with the kids. The hardest part was leaving, but it was good to know that they had enough supplies now to last them a while and that they would probably be visited again next year. Still naïve, I didn’t think that the refugee camps that we would be going to could be a lot worse than the orphanages we visited on day 1, but day 2 proved me very incorrect. We went to a camp in the middle of the desert that was not officially recognized by the Jordanian government. Under the sweltering sun, it lacked any shade except inside a few large crate containers that served as classrooms to the children. Besides that, there was a monochromatic view as far as the eye could see of beige sky and sand, dotted with little tents made of various plastic sheets and bags that comprised their homes. I started to play soccer with the kids, but within seconds I was severely parched. The toll that their circumstances were taking on the kids was evident in the way they acted and dressed so differently from the children we had seen earlier. A girl came up to me and asked me for my water. I knew that if I gave mine to her that I wouldn’t be able to drink it after, but I figured she needed it more than me. A few seconds later she instead asked me to come with her and brought me to a much younger girl, who was sitting down, panting. She only drank after her sister had enough. I saw this type of scene multiple times, with kids who were feeding and caring for infants. When we handed out sanitary packets to the tents, a lot of the families invited us to come inside the plastic bag drape into their little homes. It was crazy thinking that some of these families in Syria were either well-off or doing okay but now had nothing but a few pairs of clothes, these tents made of plastic tarp, and those left of their families. The rest of the week was full of more simultaneously heartbreaking and heartwarming instances like these as my role shifted more towards clinical volunteering. There’s so much I want to say about the state of medical care there and the many cases I saw that could’ve been easy fixes if there wasn’t such a huge disparity of medicines and equipment. But in writing this (and trying my best to keep it short I’m sorry!), I guess I wanted to focus more on the observations I had those first few days â€" when I, like my shoes which had just begun to be spray-painted with the rust-colored dirt and sand, started changing. As I write this, it’s 3 AM (MIT prime writing time, I know) and I’m sitting in the waiting room outside an Intensive Care Unit because a person I love is unfortunately not doing well. And no, I didn’t take it well at all at first. But in reflecting on our lives a bit there’s a sense of peace that has come over me. A feeling not dissimilar to moments of hardship that I’ve faced at MIT, when everything seems to be working against you, and you try to pull a Dory and “just keep swimming.” But after this experience I take a deep breath and I’m inspired by how much faith those parents and kids had. How even children who at first had blank stares eventually started coloring and opening up. I think about the blessings and privileges I’ve had to even be at this point. To even get to be in the shoes to say that one day I hope to become a doctor and treat people exactly like them, who are forgotten and lack access due to forces entirely out of their control. Because the toughe st situations, for me, have been tough because I’ve been blessed in some way beforehand, whether its dealing with a crazy workload here at MIT or being able to have my loved ones treated in places that have all the equipment necessary. This summer is not ending up like the one I planned, but that’s life. And the most important thing that MIT has done for me has not been academic; MIT has helped me find the experiences and people I need to figure out what I want to do and to grow a resiliency and adaptability that any curveball better watch out for. One last thought: MIT gets crazy busy sometimes. Believe me I know. But if there’s two things that I hope we all try and remember this summer: take care of your health and take care of others, however you can. Post Tagged #8726400 Seconds of Summer #Health Care #Refugees

Summary Of Sweet Wild Boy - 1165 Words

ORIENTATION: â€Å"Sweet Wild Boy,† reveals a man (Mark Willis) who loves and cares deeply about his family and friends. He could be described as a caretaker, or a loyal friend. Either way Mark represents a man of integrity and character; who tries to help his best friend (David) overcome family problems at home and then though out his adult life, addiction to drugs. Mark’s parents even became involved in the attempt to help save David however; David could not resist the demons of his past and always found his way back to drugs. After many attempts to help David had failed, David ended up at a local hospital where he called and asked his loyal friend to come and visit. This did not sit well with Mark’s wife, who never supported his†¦show more content†¦AGENCY SPONSORSHIP: This group was sponsored by the Arkansas State University (ASU) Social Work department. ASU Masters Social Work department mission statement is as follows; â€Å"The mission of Arkans as State University is to educate leaders, enhance intellectual growth and enrich lives.† The Master Social Work program at ASU has offered to start the Grief/Bereavement group with two professors as well as, two students. This will allow for two groups in the area if there is enough interest. This work will be done pro bono allowing anyone who meets criteria to attend these meetings without having to be concerned about the cost. By sponsoring this group not only is ASU educating their students but they are giving back to the community. MEMBERSHIP: The criteria to be in this group would be that the member would have to have lost a loved one within the twelve to eighteen months. The loved one would have been a substance user/abuser. The member would be referred from one of our recruitment sites (see recruitment section). 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Sex Citizenship in Antebellum America by Nancy Isenberg - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 1020 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/04/12 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Citizenship Essay Did you like this example? Sex Citizenship in Antebellum America by Nancy Isenberg offers a newfound perspective on the womens suffrage movement. This perspective focuses not only on the significant campaigners and conventions that sustained the womens rights movement, but on the political and social environment of the antebellum period. Isenberg states her purpose as such, This study hopes to change how scholars understand the origins of the womens rights movement in America. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Sex Citizenship in Antebellum America by Nancy Isenberg" essay for you Create order The genius of the womens rights movement layin linking rights to all the personal and political issues that affected women in the family, the church, and the state (pg. xviii). To fully understand the womens rights movement pre-civil war, Isenberg believes it essential that the issue of suffrage is no longer isolated, but examined in regards to the other political and social movements and climate that marked the early 1800s. To begin Sex Citizenship, Isenberg criticizes the popular belief among historians that the 1848 Seneca Falls convention and renowned activists Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were the exclusive initiators of the movement. At the 1840 London antislavery convention, the fateful meeting of Mott and Stanton took place, and most historians accredit this meeting as the foundation of the future womens suffrage campaign (pg. 2). Scholars also believe the creation of the Declaration of Sentiments, the founding treatise of the movement, resulted in the Seneca Falls convention as another crucial event for the movement (pg. 4). While it is important to acknowledge the effects of Mott, Stanton, and the Seneca Falls convention, Isenberg concludes that this exclusive emphasis on these select activists and the one convention succeeds in ignoring the other notable women and conventions involved in the movement. The second chapter of Sex Citizenship proceeds to mention other important conve ntions, such as the ones held in New York, Ohio, and Massachusetts, as well as covering the critiques of issues like consent, national citizenship, and equal protection that activists developed at these conventions. The next idea that Isenberg explores is the relationship between women and the public sphere. This relationship is extremely important as antebellum politics were centered around the ideology of the public sphere. The public sphere resulted in the separation between the womens and mens spheres. Due to this separation, the idea of property qualifications for suffrage succeeded in continuing to exclude women. Isenberg describes the effects from these caste differences as such, [they] measured men and women in terms of normative assumptions about physical appearance and public speaking as well as womens exposure to and concealment from the public eyes of men (pg. xvi). Thus, the public sphere dictated the role of women in antebellum America. Another issue that Isenberg addresses is the common practice of excluding the contribution of women from the religious importance of antebellum culture. In contrast to the belief that the church was an isolated institution, the church functioned politically as well as religiously. In response to this newfound political role of religion, antebellum activists began to develop critiques of the church, focusing especially on the patriarchal nature of the church. Isenberg effectively challenges the exclusion of women from roles in the church by analyzing these critiques. Isenberg also challenges the idea that the womens rights movement emerged from the antislavery movement. Several political campaigns influenced womens rights, and as these other movements are analyzed, it becomes increasingly absurd to accredit the antislavery movement as the pure catalyst for womens rights. Some of these forgotten political campaigns include the movements against capital punishment, seduction and prostitution, and manifest destiny seen through the Mexican War. Other popular campaigns of this time period support Isenbergs intention that politics of the family and home also influenced the womens rights movement. Activists reexamined marriage law and the relationship between husband and wife to show the importance of the family sphere in the origins of the suffrage movement. Sex Citizenship in Antebellum America is a generally strong book, and fulfills its purpose of reexamining the origins of the womens rights movements to include the religious, social, and political movements of the antebellum period. Isenberg successfully connects previously isolated ideas of marriage law and the religious sphere to be extremely influential in starting the womens suffrage campaign. Isenbergs excellent analysis of the critiques of women activists only adds to the books higher purpose of explaining these activists and the movement in its most complete form. Despite the overall success of the book, there are a few improvements that could be made. Firstly, in her introduction, Isenberg expressly states that she challenges the belief that the antislavery movement directly influenced the womens rights movement. However; upon further reading, Isenbergs argument is not fully formed and is easily missed among the much stronger issues that are examined. Another fault of Isenbergs work is her pattern of lengthy arguments for topics where the connection between them and the origins of the womens rights campaign is not fully expressed. For example, in her analysis of the Mexican War, Isenberg dedicates a third of a chapter to the discussion of this campaign, yet the connection between the Mexican War and the womens rights movement is still not apparent. The occurrence of this poorly formed connection makes one wonder if the mention of the Mexican War is necessary at all. Isenbergs purpose for writing Sex Citizenship in Antebellum America can be seen as a direct reply to other studies that merely focus on the suffrage campaign as an isolated movement without correlation to the political and social climate of antebellum America. Scholars that endorse these limitations on the origins of the womens rights movement include, among many, Keith Melder, The Beginnings of Sisterhood, and Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle. On a wider scale, Sex Citizenship in Antebellum America leads into a broader debate that struggles to define the origins and thus, the ideology, behind the womens rights movement. Overall, Isenberg succeeds in her quest to examine the suffrage campaign alongside of several different political campaigns, as well as connecting the movement to the political and social climate of the time period, making Sex Citizenship in Antebellum America vital to the process of fully and correctly understanding the womens right movement.

Explore the ways in which Golding and Shakespeare Free Essays

Explore the ways in which Golding and Shakespeare present Jack and Lady Macbeth are presented as disturbed BY alexis_998 Explore the ways in which Golding and Shakespeare present Jack and Lady Macbeth are presented as disturbed In this controlled assessment I will be exploring the ways in Lady Macbeth Shakespeare presents as a disturbed character from being corrupted by power also how Golding presents Jack from Lord of the flies. First of all what does it mean to be disturbed? A definition of disturbed is showing signs or symptoms of mental or emotional Illness. Well Golding defines ‘disturbed’ as power hungry, manipulative and un controllable. We will write a custom essay sample on Explore the ways in which Golding and Shakespeare or any similar topic only for you Order Now Similar to as Shakespeare who defines ‘disturbed’ as troubled/tortured, sick minded and obsessed. First of all, Golding presents Jackas disturbed from the start of the novel as very imperative. For example we see this when he says â€Å"l ought to be chief† with simple arrogance, â€Å"because I’m chapter chorister and head boy. I can sing C sharp†. This Implies thatJack is disturbed because he is very commanding which makes us think he’s the leader. On he other hand Shakespeare presents Lady Macbeth as disturbed from the start as manipulative. We see this when Macbeth receives the letter, Lady Macbeth says â€Å"If you loved me then you would kill Duncan†. This shows that she has clear sense of ambition and is power hungry. Shakespeare sets Macbeth as kind but makes Lady Macbeth more evil , which contrast with Macbeth goodness that show she is disturbed from the horror at idea of killing the king Explore the ways In which Golding and Shakespeare present Jack and Lady Macbeth what does It mean to be disturbed? A deflnltlon of disturbed Is showing signs or syrnptoms of mental or emotional illness. Well Golding defines ‘disturbed’ as power presents Jack as disturbed from the start of the novel as very imperative, For example chapter chorister and head boy. I can sing C sharp†. This implies that Jack is disturbed from the horror at Idea of killing the king Explore the ways in which Golding and Shakespeare present Jack and Lady Macbeth are presented as disturbed In this controlled assessment I will be exploring the ways in Lady Macbeth how Golding presents Jack from Lord of the flies. First of all what does it mean to be disturbed? A definition of disturbed is showing signs or symptoms of mental or emotional illness. Well Golding defines ‘disturbed’ as power hungry, manipulative and un controllable. Similar to as Shakespeare who defines ‘disturbed’ as troubled/ tortured, sick minded and obsessed. First of all, Golding presents Jack as disturbed from the start of the novel as very imperative. For example we see this when he says â€Å"l ought to be chief† with simple arrogance, â€Å"because I’m chapter chorister and head boy. I can sing C sharp†. This implies that Jack is disturbed because he is very commanding which makes us think he’s the leader. On the other hand Shakespeare presents Lady Macbeth as disturbed from the start as manipulative. We see this when Macbeth receives the letter, Lady Macbeth says â€Å"If you loved me then you would kill Duncan†. This shows that she has clear sense of ambition and is power hungry. Shakespeare sets Macbeth as kind but makes Lady Macbeth more evil , which contrast with Macbeth goodness that show she is disturbed from the horror at idea of killing the king How to cite Explore the ways in which Golding and Shakespeare, Papers

Cross Cultural Leadership - Free Sample Solution

Question: A critical evaluation of leadership theories and cross cultural factors which exist (or not) in power relations within organizations. Answer: Abstract The nature of strategy impacts vertical fit. This relationship is because different strategies have unique implications of diverse HR practices, and will influence the achievement of vertical fit. HR practices are designed and arranged to reinforce functional implications of the various generic strategies. We can take an instance of an organization which is using the strategy of cost leadership in order to make a uniform as well as an objective standard for the criteria for assessment of the performance. The clear goal of cost leadership strategy (minimizing production costs) adds to the explanation, compared with the complexity and uncertainty of the objectives of differentiation strategies. There is empirical evidence to support these perspectives. By getting deep into the projected assignment, youll get more about what is cross-cultural leadership? And the ideas that drive it, its confusion which may lead to leadership failure, more about leadership and culture, the project management and project based establishment. Leadership is a quality of one which drives the whole society. The leadership is necessary for a proper flow of action in every field. The leadership in organization comprises the entire task, including task orientation, obedience to the higher orders and rules and top to down approach of management control to fulfil the need of teamwork in an organization. It helps to build stronger relationship among the staff of the organization. The relationship- oriented workplace is a fruit of good leadership that empowers the employee and focuses on their development. Introduction The topic of Leadership has been and continues as a considerable interest in the management courses or in management literature. There is no any all-inclusive meaning of leadership, however there is a concession to the way that a leader influences the others by their personality and behaviour. A good leader is like not shouting or forcing other, but it involves the influencing process between leader and followers. In the earlier studies of leadership, the focus was mainly on the hopes of identifying the personality, character that will become an ideal leader. An ideal leadership should ensure the achievement of organisational goals. Contingency theories of leadership depend on the situation, the followers and the leaders. The most recent study of leadership theory is the cross cultural leadership (Grisham Walker, 2008). The cross-cultural leadership has created in such an approach to comprehend leaders who work in the recently settled worldwide business. Culturally diverse Leadership is a general marvel that the wherever there are gatherings of individuals, there are leaders moreover. These leaders drive the whole group and conclude the individual decision in a common decision for the global market. But the question is not about that fact that whether an ideal leadership exists across cultures, or does various leadership styles translates across cultures? The various leadership styles include paternalistic leadership, transformational leadership, and transactional leadership. What is cross-cultural leadership? The word cross and culture is now included in leadership which refers to the leader's (also known as influencer) society being not quite the same as the devotee's (focus of influencer) society. By consolidating the diverse topical meanings of the statement "initiative" and "society" with the new qualifier "cross," we all characterize multifaceted authority as "the capacity of an individual (the pioneer) of distinctive society which is deliberately and unequally impact or persuade the parts or devotees of a socially diverse gathering at the objective of accomplishment which brings about an esteemed result by applying the imparted learning and significance frameworks of the gathering that fits in with diverse society bunch." In the investigation of this definition, it gets to be clear that the words socially distinctive differentiate the multifaceted authority from the straightforward administration. The culturally diverse pioneer boat is important for pioneers to consider the ramifica tions of contrasts in significance frameworks and information of the devotees and join these distinctions in learning into an affected methodology (Grisham Walker, 2008). It gives a solid establishment to noting a few sets of the inquiries. One of them ''Is an exile pioneer dependably a diverse pioneer?'' now the right answer is yes just if there are critical contrasts in the significance frameworks and information of the pioneer and the supporters of the association. An alternate inquiry is ''Does an individual must be overseeing crosswise over different nations to be a multifaceted pioneer?'' The definition has officially addressed this question that working crosswise over numerous nations is not needed in a diverse initiative. Truth be told, a few nations may have diverse societies widely with in-nation. The Studies of multifaceted authority is taken after two fundamental methodologies. One of them is known as the Emic approach that looks to research on one society at once furthermore to focus those administration practices that have all the earmarks of being connected to the viable accomplishment of gathering objectives. The second approach of Cro ss Cultural initiative is known as the Etic methodology which tries to explore various societies all the while and to focus those authority practices which seem, by all accounts, to be connected to the successful accomplishment of gathering of influencer's objectives crosswise over a large portion of them. A study may endeavour to figure out whether a pioneer commend on supporters is decidedly connected to social order's which results in many societies or if the influencers or workers is contrarily connected with pioneer adequacy in many societies. Finishes of these sorts of studies would be to realize that how pioneers ought to act to be successful in most distinctive societies. Etic studies portray the society contrasts (House Aditya, 1997). The touchstone for most endeavours to lead the investigations of diverse authority research has been the spearheading work of hierarchical researcher focused around the accompanying four a) High Power Distancelow Power Distance: The extent to which parts of a general public including the pioneers and influencers are relied upon force to be imparted similarly among the general public. b)High Uncertainty Avoidancelow Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which parts of a general public feel uncomfortable in circumstances, for example, unstructured, equivocal, and indeterminate and make convictions and establishments that are expected to minimize the event of such circumstances. c) Individualismcollectivism: The extent to which people work autonomously of each other or are coordinated into gatherings. The concentrate is on the individual quality and aggregate quality of Leaders and also the influencers of these pioneers. Ideal Cross cultural leaderships involve There are different issues associated with the failure of many prominent organizations nowadays. If the analysis is done in the business standpoint, then the fact that comes to the front is about various factors that are attached with the cultural influence as well as culture more than that of economy. This thinking has changed the concept of competitive advantages among different organizations and the success of a company depends on the development as well as the human capital. Thus, leaders are required for the proper management of different functions that are essential to run an organization. In this modern era, leaders are selected not only for the management works but also many top class companies look for leaders who can work with the employees in an effective manner to accomplish the company objective which is common both for the employees as well as for the managers. Failure in leadership has huge impact on the global market along with the cross-cultural market across the glo be. Therefore, leaders should be appointed effectively by taking certain imperative points into consideration and those are associated with the cultural differences. It is because, this factor either positively or negatively affects the development of a company and it sets the organizational effectiveness in case of an organization. Cultural differences determine this effectiveness, because it is the leaders who are connected with the customers or clients of a country with the help of cultural aspects and that are why it controls all the activities of the organization. KeepWell plc is a UK based company who is famous for its top ranking in the market of production as well as distribution of marketing materials especially for the services that are finance related. By thinking about its expansion, the company has looked forward to the high demand of the multi-media advertising services that the organization is offering to the client companies. With the help of this, the crowd of potential clients was extended and the popularity has gone to a greater extent in the past five years. The BODs of KeepWell want to expand the company to the international market especially towards the Market of North America and that of South America as in South America the people know less about multi-media advertising which will be like a new concept with ultramodern technology and from this the lucrative viewpoint can be perceived. Regarding the evaluation of different types of factors that should be taken into consideration before taking the decision of appointing a local manager or an existing manager of KeepWell by relocating for taking over the leadership of the new site, there are some points that provide broad-spectrum view to this particular organizational function. The concept of Authentic Leadership The following points are taken from the concept of authentic leadership. Core competencies. Source: (Consulting, 2015) Influential quality of approach towards the mission of company expansion The mission of the company shouldnt be compromised whether it is about the local manager or the current manager of KeepWell. Therefore, transformational leaders are selected by the visionaries by means of different significant criteria which never hamper the mission and objective of an organization. Strong judgment quality towards the appointment of manager leads sustainable development of this organization which can be managed with the help of this particular factor (Grisham Walker, 2008). It helps to build more confidence among the employees as they get the right kind of manager who has trust as well as reliance on the members of the staff of KeepWell plc. Responsibilities over human resource management This factor helps to take the appropriate decision about local manager or that of relocating the present manager to the leadership level of the new place. For example- When the current manager goes to the new site, it will be a completely new place with new cultural environment and it creates cultural differences which have influential aspects towards the development and success of the company. Therefore, it will take some time to adjust with the socio-cultural surroundings of the new site where the company is willing to expand its branch. However, if a local manager is appointed in this circumstance, it would be great because he is an inhabitant of that place and very much comfortable with the culture of that place. Thus, the local manager will understand his responsibility very quickly and work for the goals of the organization by which faster development can be possible in case of KeepWell (House Aditya, 1997). There are some other approaches that should be taken into consideration before reaching at a point of conclusion related to the manager post of the new branch. These factors are linked with the management as well as staffing. Factor-1 Ethnocentric The practices of the home country get succeeded with this particular style of approach and the key judgments of decisions along with the importance of different jobs as well as the functions of the subsidiaries depends on this factor principally. This factor is always taken into consideration as the futuristic developmental approach of the organization towards key management of selecting whether the manager should be a local or the existing one rely on it (House Aditya, 1997). Factor-2 Polycentric The management of subsidiary part of KeepWell plc is organized on a local basis. It is because the managers who sit at the main headquarter may not have ample amount of knowledge regarding the localities. A local manager can work from the root level for the prospective progress of the company. Factor-3 Geocentric Appointing or relocating a manager in a global basis comes under the strategy of sustainable development which includes HRM practices. E.g. Electrolux is an international organization that has developed a group of managers in a globalized manner so that they can work for the development of the company based on the concept of cross cultural leadership. KeepWell should go for this kind of strategy which will act like a mobile base of leaders. There are also numerous factors that play vital role in the key decision of recruiting a manager in terms of individual type, experience, proficiency and capability as well as skill and knowledge for the new sites of KeepWell plc. The factors comprise Recruitment and selection in a proper criteria This factor is classified into several subcategories like- The nationality of the manager should be same as that of the organization. E.g. - The manager of a Slovenian Organization should be a Slovenian inhabitant. The subsidiary group must contain employees who have nationality of that particular location. E.g. - A Slovenian organization which is at Macedonia has a Macedonian manager. There are also cases like an Albanian Manager who is working for a company which is actually a Slovenian one but established in Macedonia. KeepWell plc cant function properly by ignoring any of the fact as recruitment as well as selection procedures of managers involve both in the level of headquarters as well as the subsidiary. The development phase along with high-quality training High skilled trained manager should be the first priority of Human Resource Development programs at an international level in KeepWell. It includes The proper training as well as development of the managers of the new sites in South America and other parts of the world. The main purpose is to create a group of managers who are competent to an international level of competitive market. For the expatriates, special training programs should be conducted at abroad. Performance evaluation The HRM strategies of the cross cultural leadership should include the performance evaluation at KeepWell plc. Equity here is one of the obligatory approaches for the right kind of performance evaluation at headquarters as well as at the subsidiary level. In case of many of the managers it has been observed that some of them learn or try to learn the local languages very quickly whereas some of them use the original language in all places which shows the inadaptable nature towards cultural differences. Here polycentric approach defines the local styles and the geocentric approach illustrates the international style of cross cultural activities towards leadership abilities. Remuneration along with rewards This factor will attract more employees towards the new sites of KeepWell plc as it is important to know about the employee satisfaction points. Remuneration is the basic approach here and other benefits such as- healthcare benefits, holiday spending at different places with the facilities provided by the organization and other encouragement aspects. The decision regarding the payrolls of employees has positive impact on the competitive market sector which has advantageous effect on the international market of KeepWell plc. Rewards to the employees have proved to be the best encouragement strategies which maintain the interest of work for the progress of the organization (House Aditya, 1997). Labour relations The relationship of the workers with the management is defined by this factor of labour relations. It varies according to the different locations across the globe, e.g. In Japan there is a cooperative labour relationship that can be observed between the workers and the management while in the US sometimes there are antagonistic situations which can be observed among the workers and the management. There are also several cultural issues which should be evaluated for the identification of different types of leadership. These points should be taken into consideration by the new managers. Prevention of uncertainty This issue should be given emphasis by which the organization depends on some established standards, practices, norms etc to avoid any kind of ambiguity. Therefore, KeepWell should establish some rules and regulation for the sustainability of these norms. Power Distance The power among different employees should be different according to their competence and this factor must match the cultural aspects. It creates levels among different employees in terms of status, wealth, power, prestige etc. Collectivism Combined activities in KeepWell plc are encouraged by the leaders so that identification of the social as well as institutional interests about different cultures will be possible. The attachment and loyalty of the employees is also included with this factor. Gender This factor supports the gender equity for the ultimate purpose of lessening the gender difference in KeepWell plc. Assertiveness The determined cultural actions which define the social relationship of the people come under this aspect. Different Orientations Prospective orientation, Performance and Humanitarian orientations come under this particular aspect. It is about the different types of cross cultural behaviours that define the various planning as well as investment related to the development of KeepWell plc. Rewards as well as caring nature is associated with the performance and humane orientation respectively which states the social support along with values linked with the communities. Conclusion After the 2nd World War, these theories of leadership and cross cultural development have taken place due to the growing internationalization all over the world. This globalization created many new leaders who had greater perceptive knowledge towards the cultural differences as well as the improved ability in the sector of cross cultural communication and its execution. Therefore, all the above-mentioned factors will be helpful in case of the improvement of leadership qualities and cross cultural activities of the firm KeepWell plc. It is because an ineffective leader can take an organization to a deprived condition with a behaviour which is not social and self-focused in nature. Recommendation to the Managing Directors There are some of the questionnaires that have significant effects on the cross cultural factors and leadership theories which should be implemented by the managing directors. That are- self-awareness- It provides the correct measurement regarding the strengths as well as limitations of KeepWell plc. This concept helps to understand the role of leaders and what are the impacts of leaders in the organizational development. Transparency is one of the recommended aspects provided by the experts to present a certain level of openness to the workers. It offers a broad platform which encourages the employees to come up with their ideas and views openly in KeepWell. Ethics presents the moral standards in case of the leaders which maintain the organizational behaviour to an impressive level. The cross cultural activities of KeepWell should support all types of issues that indicate cultural differences and their importance in an organization. Headquarter along with the branches of the new sit es after the expansion of the company should be considered under full equity regarding all the mentioned approaches because of their significance towards cross cultural aspects and different leadership styles (House Aditya, 1997). This particular theory originates from the humanistic point of view. Organizational culture in case of a company like KeepWell plc, has high value and deep description about this culture lies which is found in corporate experience. There are some crucial focus points of KeepWell plc which are based on Organizational culture: It modifies the international market. Strong competitors arise KeepWell plc always re-evaluate the management performance on the basis of traditional practices. Realization regarding domineering environment get raised in the organizations, basically situations for employees, women as well as minor groups (Fels, 2009). This approach comprises of some significant points about the organizational culture theory like: This theory always puts the behavioral efforts in the environment of KeepWell plc. It also explains about the differences in factors of several organizations. It provides explanations about the alliance or grouping of members in an organization. There are some misunderstandings about this theory that can put negative effects on the management system of an organization. As the reputation of KeepWell plc is at zenith, so it always puts its focus on these things given below: Difference in cultures is one of the common reasons which crate major as well as minor misconceptions. The roots are originated from the mistaken assumptions on social point of view within the organization. A subculture is a term which is created by groups of people within the culture by certain differentiation like larger culture and smaller culture. This can create serious misunderstandings. Culture may ruin many associations and halt the upcoming development process. According to various researches it has been come to see that, there is a significant cost to the poor communication that is universal in many of the work groups, teams, and organizations. And it can be rectified by taking proper steps for it. Some of the steps are mentioned below in which, if an organization works can get success in the corporate world. By using multiple channels for organizational communication By making important messages repetitive Focusing on listening Handle communication problems Due to the changes made in the work place in society and among human specialists, human resource managers and their associations have begun to see themselves as a part of the unique profession. One of the characteristics of the profession is the development through the research and experimentation of an organized body language. This knowledge can generally share at conferences, seminars and workshops that are being sponsored by the professional associations. By successfully implementing these factors and strictly pursues of it, and then it will never organize down in the competitive world. The recommendations here are all effective ones for the improvement of organization and the cultural issues with leadership. The enhancements will be short lived, however, if old habits are permitted to return and are deeply ingrained in the organizational culture. References Bibliography Grisham, T., Walker, D. H. (2008). Cross-cultural leadership.International Journal of Managing Projects in Business,1(3), 439-445. House, R. J., Wright, N. S., Aditya, R. N. (1997). Cross-cultural research on organizational leadership: A critical analysis and a proposed theory. Frost, J., Walker, M. (2007). Cross cultural leadership.Engineering Management,17(3), 27-29. Dorfman, P. W. (1996). International and cross-cultural leadership research. Handbook for international management research, 267-349. Hudea, O. S. (2014). Cross-cultural Leadership.Manager Journal,19(1), 45-52. Gerstner, C. R., Day, D. V. (1994). Cross-cultural comparison of leadership prototypes.The Leadership Quarterly,5(2), 121-134. Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., De Luque, M. S., House, R. J. (2006). In the eye of the beholder: Cross cultural lessons in leadership from Project GLOBE. The Academy of Management Perspectives,20(1), 67-90. Graen, G. B. (2006). In the eye of the beholder: cross-cultural lesson in leadership from project GLOBE: a response viewed from the third culture bonding (TCB) model of cross-cultural leadership.The Academy of Management Perspectives,20(4), 95-101. Dickson, M. W., Den Hartog, D. N., Mitchelson, J. K. (2003). Research on leadership in a cross-cultural context: Making progress, and raising new questions.The leadership quarterly,14(6), 729-768. Gupta, V., MacMillan, I. C., Surie, G. (2004). Entrepreneurial leadership: developing and measuring a cross-cultural construct.Journal of Business Venturing,19(2), 241-260. Resick, C. J., Hanges, P. J., Dickson, M. W., Mitchelson, J. K. (2006). A cross-cultural examination of the endorsement of ethical leadership.Journal of Business Ethics,63(4), 345-359. Peterson, M. F. (1998). Two scholars' views of some nooks and crannies in cross-cultural leadership.The Leadership Quarterly,8(4), 343-354. Robertson, J. M., Webber, C. F. (2000). Cross-cultural leadership development.International Journal of Leadership in Education,3(4), 315-330. Chen, Y. F., Tjosvold, D. (2005). Cross-cultural leadership: Goal interdependence and leadermember relations in foreign ventures in China. Journal of International Management,11(3), 417-439. Dimmock, C., Walker, A. (2000). Developing comparative and international educational leadership and management: A cross-cultural model.School Leadership Management,20(2), 143-160. Leadership Model. (2015). Leadership and Talent Development. (2015). Maximize Business Performance. (2015). Appendices Appendix I Nasa Leadership Model. Source: (Model, 2015) Appendix II

Automobile Industry Essays - American Brands, Automotive Industry

Automobile Industry There is no industry more present in the world-wide community than the automobile industry. The automobile has changed the lives, culture, and economy of the people and nations that manufacture and demand them. Ever since the late 1800s when the first "modern" car was invented by Benz and Daimler in Germany, the industry has grown into a billion dollar industry affecting so many aspects of our lives. There are more than 400 million passenger cars alone on the roads today. During the early part of the twentieth century, the United States was home to more than 90 percent of the world's automotive industry, but has shrunk to about 20 percent in today's world. This drastic change has occurred by the booming economies in such nations as Japan, Germany, Canada, France, Italy, and other nations. The US auto industry "sales totaled $205 billion, or 3.3 percent of the total Gross Domestic Product." (Tardiff 394) By the end of 19th century, there were about 500 auto manufacturers, but that number dropped sharply to 23 by 1917, and today the Big Three dominate the market. Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler make up the Big Three which account for 23 percent of the world's motor vehicle production in 1997, with the Japanese industries coming in second, producing 21 percent. Germany produces 9 percent, Spain, France, South Korea, and Canada each produce 5 percent of the international market in 1997. In the US alone, the auto industry, which includes it's 500,000 car-related businesses, create 12 million jobs. The automobile is clearly an oligopoly, but each company's control of the market has gradually diminished because of rising foreign competition. The US has three main auto manufacturers, Japan has five major producers as does Germany. Each of these companies produce differentiated versions of the same product, have control over their products' prices, and rely heavily on non-price competition. Each company produces a new line of cars for each model annually. There are many different types of cars, like sedans, station wagons, Sport Utility Vehicles (SUV), two-doors, and four-doors, but by comparing models between two competing companies, you can see how great the similarities are. The auto industry can still thrive even though it's products are so similar because the demand for cars is immense and continuous. People rely on cars for so many things that life without one seems impossible, especially in the US which registered 141 million cars in 1988, whereas Japan, the second highest, only registered 30 million. The creation and production of a new car starts about three to four years before it is released to the public. The initial planning stage begins in the company's corporate headquarters with ideas for the car from product planners and company officials. Automotive designers draw prospective sketches of the new car, and once approved, model makers create small scale models of the car in fiberglass or clay, then forge life size models also in clay or fiberglass. Automotive engineers then develop each part of the car, and mock-up builders create those indigenous parts of the new car. Test drivers check over the entire system, analyzing how it runs, and then gives suggestions on improving the vehicle. Automotive engineers test all the new, specialized parts of the car, and after all the parts are tested, plant engineers plan how to best mass-produce the new car. Of all the people working in the automobile industry, most will be found in this next industry which is the assembly plant. In the United States, the majority of these assembly plants can be found in the Michigan, Great Lakes area, and it, on average, takes about ninety minutes on the assembly line for an entire car to be produced. When planning a new car model, the company tries to create what the consumer wants. This is very difficult because as stated earlier it take between three and four years to develop a car. When General Motors begins developing a new product, it starts by assembling a new team to coordinate the production. After this team is assembled, millions of dollars are spent on dispensing and analyzing public surveys, private firm's own research, government research, and past car sales to determine what the consumer wants. These specifications include physical dimensions, cost, fuel efficiency, comfort, market price, appearance, and performance. GM then would go on to begin producing the car. The most time consuming step when creating a new model is supplying the specialized pieces of the new model. Some of the parts can be carried over from previous models or other cars,

How to Become a Teacher Expert Career Guide

How to Become a Teacher Expert Career Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips What's more exciting than educating a new generation of students? If you're interested in becoming a teacher and want some information about how to succeed in this profession, you're in the right place. Here, I'll walk you through how to become a teacher, explaining the steps you need to take in high school, college, and beyond. First, though, I'll touch briefly on the occupational outlook for teachers in the US- this way, you'll be informed about projected job availability and income levels before jumping in. For the sake of this article, I'm going to focus on K-12 teachers (you can, of course, teach at the college/university level, but that involves a pretty different career path). The steps you'd take to succeed in teaching vary slightly based on which academic grades you're interested in working with. From here on out, I'll be differentiating between elementary, middle, and high school teachers where there might be different steps necessary for success. Occupational Outlook for Teachers Before you jump into any career path, it's important to think ahead about more practical things, like expected income and job availability. The US Bureau of Labor Statistics lists important info on pay, necessary education, and job outlook for almost any profession you can think of. High pay and an increase in available positions generally bodes well for people hoping to enter a certain field. Here are these all-important stats for K-12 teachers in the US: Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers 2014 Median Pay: $53,760 Typical Entry-Level Education (the bare minimum you'd need to enter the field): Bachelor's degree Job Outlook, 2014-2024 (the estimated job growth rate- bigger is better): 6%, which is about average Middle School Teachers 2014 Median Pay: $54,940 Typical Entry-Level Education: Bachelor's degree Job Outlook, 2014-2024: 6%, which is about average High School Teachers 2014 Median Pay: $56,310 Typical Entry-Level Education: Bachelor's degree Job Outlook, 2014-2024: 6%, which is about average How to Become a Teacher: Career Steps Overview To become a teacher, there are a few important things you'll need (I'll go into more detail on these steps and more in the following sections): A high school diploma A bachelor's degree A graduate degree (depending on your preferred career track and the teaching requirements in your area- it's often not required) Your teaching certification/license (requirements will vary based on the state) If you plan ahead, it's possible to start your teaching career very soon after graduating from college. Now that you have a sense of what you'll need to become a teacher, I'll go into the details of what you should do at each stage of the game- starting with high school. Setting Yourself Up for Success: 4 Steps to Take in High School You don't have to make a final decision about a teaching career in high school, but there are some important things you can do to put yourself on the right path. Decide If Teaching Is the Right Fit High school is a good time to start thinking about whether you'd be comfortable with the day-to-day realities and responsibilities of teaching. At all grade levels, teaching involves these important core responsibilities: Preparing lessons Grading assignments and tests Getting kids to behave and participate in class Filling out report cards and assessments Meeting with parents On a personal level, good teachers tend to be: Good at communicating- The crux of your job as an instructor is getting the class to understand new, sometimes challenging, material. Patient- You'll have to deal with students who have trouble learning, behaving, or both. Compassionate- Students (of all ages) aren't always easy to deal with. It will be important for you to be sensitive to challenges they may be dealing with. Creative- You may have to come up with some unorthodox ways of keeping students engaged and learning. Hard-working- Your work as a teacher won't end with the bell. You'll have to come up with lesson plans and tasks, meet with students, parents, and administrators, and grade a ton of assignments. So how do you figure out whether you'd be okay with the responsibilities of working as a teacher? And how do you know whether you have the core characteristics that make a successful instructor? Here are some steps you can take to determine whether teaching may be a good fit: Interviews- Talk with your own instructors about their experiences. Why did they become a teacher? What do they like about their job? What don't they like so much? Shadowing and Observation- Start actively paying attention not only to what your instructors teach, but how they teach it. Are there any teaching methods that you really like? What about methods that aren't as effective? You might also look into opportunities to shadow instructors, especially those teaching in younger classrooms. Tutoring- This is a bit different than teaching a classroom full of students, but teachers still work with students one-on-one. There might be peer-tutoring services offered through your school, or you might look for a job through some other tutoring service. You can start getting teaching experience even in high school. Focus on Your High School Education A strong education in high school will serve as the foundation for your education as a teacher. Elementary school teachers in particular need to be well-rounded as they are responsible for covering all subjects with their students. A high GPA and strong ACT/SAT scores will also make you a more attractive candidate to strong teaching degree programs, which brings me to the next step ... Start Researching Degree Programs If you've decided to pursue a degree in teaching, by the time you start submitting college applications you'll want to apply to appropriate teaching programs. First, you only want to look into accredited programs. Access this complete list of all accredited teaching programs for reference. Second, consider whether you're ready to commit to a particular specialty (e.g. elementary, middle school, or high school education). These specialties will often have different degree requirements- if you already know what you're interested in, you can focus specifically on those degree requirements when you look at schools. Submit Strong College Applications If you end up at a school with a strong teaching program, the next steps you'll have to take to become a teacher will be that much easier. Start by checking out the top-ranked elementary and secondary teaching programs in the US (make sure you're only looking at undergraduate rankings- you don't need a graduate program just yet). You won't necessarily need a degree in teaching- I'll talk more about this in the next section- but if you're sure at this point that teaching is for you, a targeted program might prepare you more effectively for your career. Early decision applications are usually due October-November of your senior year, whereas regular decision apps are due late December-early January. Learn more about how to apply for college and when to apply here. Exploring Education: 4 Steps to Take in College College is where you have to start making big decisions about your teaching career. The good news is that you'll have support along the way, especially if you've decided to attend a program that's targeted towards aspiring teachers. Here's what you should do in college to succeed as a teacher: Know Your State's Teaching Requirements Every state has different rules in place regarding exactly what qualifications you need in order to teach. If you're licensed as a teacher in one state, it's usually possible to become licensed in another, but it's not always easy. As you enter your degree program, you should figure out the licensing requirements for the state you're currently living in AND any states you anticipate moving to in the near future. This way, you'll avoid any unpleasant surprises- you'll also be able to make sure you take any and all required courses or practicums. Take advantage of your program's resources to make sure you meet all necessary requirements. First, the program itself should have requirements built in that will prepare you to meet state requirements. Second, career centers and academic advisors can put you on the right track if you're worried about being prepared for a teaching career after graduation. Knowing these teaching requirements at the beginning of your program will help you make sure you don't miss any important steps. Commit to a Specialty Once you've committed to a college, one of your next big decisions will be committing to a specialty. You'll have to fulfill different degree requirements depending on your specific educational path- the type of teaching you hope to pursue will dictate what sort of specialty you'll choose. Here are the major teaching programs types to choose from: Early Childhood Education Pre-K through 3rd grade Focus mostly on teaching techniques, curriculum, and lesson planning College major is usually in education Elementary Education Primary grades (pre-K through 6th or 8th grade) Focus mostly on teaching techniques, curriculum, and lesson planning College major is usually in education Secondary Education 6th or 8th grade through 12th grade Usually requires you to choose a more specific specialty/content area (e.g. English, Math, History) Teaching techniques, curriculum, and lesson planning are included in the course of study in addition to the chosen content area specialty Specialty Degrees Focus on one specific, specialty area (e.g. fine arts, performing arts, physical education) Other degree options that can be combined with an education degree include special ed and gifted ed Requirements will vary based on the chosen specialty You might major in the subject you hope to teach (e.g. English, Math) and supplement your curriculum with courses in education Administration Education for leadership within the education system Usually requires undergraduate (BA) AND graduate (MA, PhD) education Programs tend to focus on school structure, curriculum, organization, and leadership Gain Real-World Experience This is especially important for students who may not be in a dedicated teaching program (e.g. students who want to teach secondary education and are majoring in something other than education). Real-world teaching experience will help you get more comfortable with leading a classroom so that you can hit the ground running when you start your teaching career. Here are some ways to gain experience, whether you're in a dedicated teaching program or not: School visits- Observing how teachers work at local schools is a great way to experience a day in the life as a teacher. You may want to check out different grade levels to see if you have any preferences. Working as a teacher's assistant- There are many teachers out there who would love some extra help! This is definitely more hands-on than just observing a classroom. Tutoring- Teachers don't just lead entire classrooms- they also work one-on-one with students who want extra help. Tutoring kids of different ages (and even in different subjects) may help you figure out what you like and what you don't. Volunteer mentorship- This is pretty different from traditional teaching experiences, but volunteering to serve as a mentor for a child or teen may help you develop important leadership skills. Running an after-school program- Wrangling a group of kids to get them to participate in an organized activity? Not so different from running a classroom. Bonus: after-school activities can be pretty fun- you could help put on a play, coach intramural sports, or lead a club. Complete Your Education With Student Teaching Student teaching is where you start to implement everything you've learned thus far in a real classroom. It's an important part of any college teaching program. Student teaching will work differently based on your college, your teaching specialty, your student-teaching school, and the classroom you work in. Some student teachers may be expected to take over all classroom responsibilities at multiple grade levels fairly quickly, whereas others may only take a few core responsibilities at one grade level. If you have questions about what student teaching usually entails, you should speak with administrators at your specific program. In general, though, here's what to expect: Student teaching usually lasts for about a semester. You'll be matched with a particular classroom and teacher, usually at a school that has some sort of partnership with your bachelor's program. Most student teachers start off by observing the classroom (this lasts between a few days or a few weeks) before gradually taking over all teaching responsibilities. You should expect to be in the student-teaching classroom all day, every day. Although you may just be observing at first, you'll be learning to build and teach lessons, meet with students, and administer and grade assignments- by the end of the semester, you should ideally feel comfortable leading a classroom on your own. Requirements may be different for those pursuing early childhood, elementary, and secondary education. Each teaching program will have their own protocols- again, it's best to explore any specific questions you have about your own program (or potential programs, if you're still looking at different schools). Final Steps: Teaching Certification Getting certified in the state where you hope to teach is necessary if you want to work at a public school. If you're considering private schools, you may not have to get certified, but it's still recommended (you have a lot more flexibility when it comes to jobs that you qualify for). Here's how you get certified to teach at any school: Pick a State Each state has its own requirements for licensing and certifying teachers. If you want to teach in the same state where you went to college, you'll probably already be familiar with these reqs. If you hope to teach in a different state, you'll have more research to do (it's helpful to do this while you're still in school, like I mentioned earlier, so that you can meet all course requirements ahead of time). Just Google "[state name] teaching certification." Any link that leads to the state's Department of Education is helpful. One thing to keep in mind: some states pay teachers better than others on average. If you're not rooted to one place, and money is a concern, you may want to learn more. Register for Exams (If Necessary) Some states require educators to take licensing exams to prove that they would be competent teachers. Whether these exams are required, how often they're given, and what's actually tested will vary widely by state. It's best to give yourself plenty of time (6 months or more) to register and prepare for these tests. Your teaching program will help prepare you for any necessary certification exams. Apply for Certification Once you've met all state requirements, you can go ahead and apply for certification in the state you hope to work. You'll want to do this several months before you hope to start your job search (you don't want to be delayed in case there are any issues with your application, so starting while you're still in college is a good idea). This process might be easier if you're already certified in another state. Graduate School and Beyond Some states require teachers (at public schools, at least) to earn a Master's degree in order to qualify for certification. Other states encourage, but do not require, a graduate degree. If you're unsure about the requirements for the state you hope to work in, learn more about individual state certification requirements. Whether you end up getting a graduate degree will also depend on your chosen career path- for example, teachers who hope to work in administration will likely need a Master's or PhD. Having a graduate degree- even if it's not required- may lead to more job opportunities and a higher salary. If you're interested in graduate programs, check out the top-ranked education programs in the US. Even if you're certified in a state, you may have to keep up with certification renewals or continuing education requirements- staying on top of this stuff is important when it comes to keeping your license! How to Become a Teacher: 8-Step Summary There are quite a few steps involved in becoming a teacher, but here are the main ones you should remember: Decide if teaching is the right fit Focus on doing well in high school Research teaching degree programs Submit strong college applications Become familiar with your state's teaching requirements Choose a specialty Get real world experience Get certified, and keep your certification by staying on top of requirements What's Next? As you've read above, one of the best ways to prepare for a career in teaching is making sure you get into a great undergraduate program. To get into your top choice colleges, make sure you keep your GPA high. Focusing on extracurricular activities, especially community service work, is also important for applications to teaching programs. Finally, work on getting great SAT or ACT scores. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Global Interdependence Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Global Interdependence - Article Example Colonialism was responsible for the expansion of the slave trade, and the exploitation of colonies to make the colonial powers richer. Without colonialism it is doubtful that capitalism would have developed as rapidly and as widespread as it did. Colonialism also formed relationships between the colonies and the colonial powers that have heavily influenced global interdependence. The third article was by Davis and is about what the author terms as Victorian Holocausts. The main point of this article is that the colonialism of the Late Victorian Period had a detrimental affect upon the colonies, especially those in Africa. Davis contends that through a combination of greed, negligence, and apathy the colonial powers caused starvation, poverty, and backwardness. The colonial powers were responsible for making the developing countries poorer after they finally gained independence. These three articles when studied together offer different insights into how contemporary global interdependence came about. The Westad article concentrated upon the influence that the United States has had on shaping the world after the Second World War. Westad contends that the United States played a much greater role in shaping the post-war world due to the superpower rivalry with the Soviet Union. In contrast the Cesaire article places the most importance on the experience of colonialism. Stating it was one of the most important factors in the shaping of contemporary global interdependence. Colonialism as an experience remains very important in our understanding of how the modern world was shaped. The Davis article offers a great amount of detail as to how misrule and exploitation by the colonial powers has continued to have a highly detrimental affect upon the wealth as well as the stability of many former colonies, particularly in Africa. To be honest these three articles are most useful for understanding

Entrepreneurship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Entrepreneurship - Essay Example Whatever the source, the opportunity should be able to generate profit. The business idea in this case came up due to an unmet need in the market. The entrepreneur after visiting several restaurants trying out different Indian cuisines was disappointed as he could not get really good fresh spices. After careful research, he discovered that there was lack of reliable source of good quality spices at an affordable cost and this presented an opportunity for a business venture. The idea could be exploited through development of a new product (high quality freshly ground spices). An entrepreneur has to consider the target market and aim at fulfilling unmet needs (Shane, 2003). As such this was a good idea as the market was untapped and many customers (restaurants) were in need of fresh good quality spices. Another aspect is that the idea should not be easy to imitate hence creating barriers for new entrants (Butler, 2004). This product was to be made using a new production process and storage system and this was made possible by use of a well qualified engin eer who could make such spices. The entrepreneur was well connected with people who knew buyers of spices and hence no problems with distributing the product (Greene, 2011). The idea was also feasible due to the fact that it does not require heavy investment as the production process is very simple. It involves use of freshly ground spices but which would not loose taste due to storage. Other producers were unable to store spices due to loss of taste hence could not fulfil the needs of the customers (Hougaard, 2005). Another advantage was that, since the idea was new there was no dominant design established. This could have hindered the entry of the new venture. Honest Tea was established in 1998 and the entrepreneurial opportunity arose when one of the founders discovered an unmet need in the beverage industry. After consuming beverages on a hot day, his thirst was not quenched thus

Assessment And Classroom Based Assessment English Language Essay

Assessment And Classroom Based Assessment English Language Essay The aim of this chapter is to look at relevant research studies in relation to assessment in the classroom context, and to explore the role of classroom assessment in more details, with a specific focus on formative language assessment. It appears that the teachers classroom assessment practices and strategies may directly impact learners learning, and this includes young learners.(Oksana:not only with young learnersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..so what should I put here) Classroom teachers are in the front line of helping learners learning and assessing their performance in the classroom. Thus, the literature review is mainly concerned with the role of classroom assessment and the relationship between classroom assessment practices and learning. The following section clarifies some terminology and explores the links between assessment and learning with young language learners in the EFL context through a review of literature on experiences of assessment with primary-age learners. 2.2 Definitions of assessment and classroom-based assessment In this section, the definition of the term assessment is provided and the definition of classroom-based assessment (CBA) is discussed to provide more details of the relationship between assessment and learning in classrooms. In the educational context, the term assessment is often associated with testing for most of the teachers, learners and other stakeholders. However, testing is only one element of assessment and it actually encompasses a wider range of factors from tests to dynamic and collaborative activities and tasks. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the difference between assessment and testing before looking at the definition of classroom-based assessment(Oksana: insert page numberà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦what?). 2.2.1 The distinction between assessment and testing Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (2003: 4) provide a broader interpretation of assessment; they describe assessment as a general term which includes all methods used to gather information about childrens knowledge, ability, understanding, attitudes and motivation. Assessment can be carried out through a number of instruments (for example, test, self-assessment), and can be formal or informal. This definition suggests that teachers may use both formal and informal methods to collect information in relation to learners performance, such as their ability and attitudes, as an evidence of learning. Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (ibid) point out that assessment refers to all kinds of methods, whether they are formal or informal, with the aim of collecting evidences of learners learning.(Oksana: similar to above, suggestion: remove it) The studies of Rea-Dickins(2000), Lambert and Lines (2000) go further to suggest that assessment is a constant ongoing process rather than a onetime thing. Rea-Dickins (2000) illustrates assessment as the general process of monitoring of keeping track of the learners progress. (p. 376). She highlights that such process is a continuous method to monitor the learners performance. Lambert and Lines (2000) also show the similar view of point, they define assessment as the process of gathering, interpreting, recording and using information about pupils responses to educational tasks (p. 4) From their viewpoint, assessment is related to what teachers do during the process of teaching and learning, including gathering, diagnosing, recording and using information about pupils performance and feedback. As can be seen, assessment is a part of both teachers and learners life within classroom and is integrated to the process of teaching and learning. It is also used to monitor and respond to lea rners regular work, such as learning activities, tasks and tests. On the other hand, testing refers to a procedure that is used to measure learners ability by teachers and examiners (Rea-Dickins, 2000). According to Ioannou-Georgior and Sophie (2003), testing is a procedure with a certain objective and is used by teachers to assess learners performance in order to understand whether the learner has achieved this objective or not. They also point out that testing used tasks or exercises and assigns marks or grades based on quantitative results (p. 4) This seems to suggest that testing is one of the tools that used by teachers to assess their learners ability and is a way to demonstrate what learners have learnt. It also implies that testing is a onetime thing rather than an ongoing process. As can be seen, testing is a procedure with a certain objective and is used to collect quantitative results, in terms of marks or grades. It is used to measure what the learners have learnt and to check whether they have met their goal or not; meanwhile, assessme nt refers to all methods of collecting both quantitative and qualitative data in relation to learners performance and is a continuous process. (Oksana: Yes, but it is classroom based assessment specifically that does thisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..what?)In fact, through clarifying the boundaries between testing and assessment may help us to get insight into the meaning and definition of classroom-based assessment. 2.2.2 Definition of Classroom-Based Assessment Classroom-based assessment is defined by Airasian as the process of collecting, synthesizing and interpreting information to aid in classroom decision making (2005, p. 2). He highlights the work that teachers need to take during the process of assessment in the classroom context, with the aim of supporting teachers in decision making, such as deciding what forms of assessment are most appropriate for gaining information about learners learning and measuring achievement. In classrooms, teachers collect data in relation to learners needs, strength, and weakness and try to interpret the information on the basis of teachers own beliefs, capacities and knowledge. They then provide help to learners and may be able to support individual learning needs. Such ongoing processes, including assigning grades, providing feedback and learning opportunities, and modifying the teaching and learning, are aiming to renew, keep track and record learners performance in the classroom. By doing so, teacher s may be able to enhance learners learning and help them to close the gap between their current status and their target level (Sadler 1989). Further, Mckay describes that classroom assessment or teacher assessment refers to assessment carried out by teachers in the classroom (2006, p. 140). He then notes that classroom assessment may be formative, for instance, when the purpose is to provide feedback to help learners improve learning, or it may be summative, when the purpose is to record and report pupils achievement and attainment (Rea-Dickins 2000). As can be seen, the purposes for classroom assessment may lead to using assessment information formatively or summatively by teachers. For example, they may need to use formative assessment to identify learner needs and use summative assessment to provide learners achievement to school authorities in the end of a school year. In fact, there are a variety of purposes for teachers to use classroom assessment. Rea-Dickins suggests three objectives of using classroom assessment: teaching, nurturing learning, and measuring learning (2000). In other words, teachers may use classro om assessment to modify their teaching methods and materials, provide appropriate help to learners and meet the bureaucratic demands. Classroom assessment plays a significant role in collecting information about learners learning and can also be used to support teachers teaching and learning (Rea-Dickins, 2001). It is a continuous and integrated process which can be planned in advance as well as be unplanned, such as observing learners language performance during the course of teaching and assessment activities. The roles of teachers may have an impact on learners learning in the classroom, whether as facilitators to develop learners language development or as assessors to measure learners language learning, (Rea-Dickins, 2008). Teachers may use both formative and summative assessment as pedagogic tools to scaffold learners, adjust their teaching, and assign grades for learners in the classroom. It is important for teachers to develop classroom assessment skills and strategies, and bring about positive change in classrooms. The aims of adopting classroom assessment strategies are to support learners learning and te achers teaching, and to meet the ultimate achievement of the curriculum goals. Rea-Dickins (2001) provides a model of classroom assessment which illustrates teachers roles in four stages in the classroom assessment process (see Figure 2.1). It also reveals the fact that teachers may need to play a mediating role in order to deal with various demands from improving learning and modifying teaching. For instance, in stage 1, the Planning stage, teachers may be interpreters to explain the learning goals and assessment criteria with learners and evaluators to identify learners needs and levels. They may become supporter in stage 2 in order to scaffold learners and provide feedback to them. As for stage 3, teachers may also need to be interpreters to interpret the learning evidence and improvers to refine the assessment process; meanwhile, they may need to be reports to report and record the learning progress to administrative authorities. Stage 1: Planning Identifying the purpose for the assessment?(why?) Choosing the assessment activity(how) Preparing the learners for the assessment Who chooses/decides for each of the above Stage 4: Recording Dissemination Recording reporting progress toward NC Formal review for LEA or internal school purposes Strategies for dissemination of formal review of learners Stage 2: Implementation Introducing the assessment(why, what, how) Scaffolding, during assessment activity Learner self- peer monitoring Feedback to learners(immediate) Stage 3: Monitoring Recording evidence of achievement Interpreting evidence obtained from an assessment Revising teaching and learning plans Sharing findings with other teachers Feedback to learners (delayed) Figure 2.1 Process and strategies in classroom assessment  [1]   However, teachers may not be able to predict the complex interaction between these two assessment purposes before actually implementing the assessment active. For instance, teacher-planned summative assessment may also provide formative assessment opportunities for students during the teaching process. Rea-Dickins (2006) points out that the boundary and interaction between formative and summative purposes of assessment cannot be identified in any watertight way in advance, as they will unfold and be enacted through the classroom discourse (p. 183). As can be seen, teachers need to be flexible with their classroom assessment practices and be able to use both formative and summative assessment as pedagogic tools to scaffold learners, adjust their teaching, and assign grades for learners in the classroom. Thus, it is important for teachers to understand the functions of both formative and summative assessments and how to use them to modify their teaching, enhance pupil achievement, and report to school authorities, parents and other stakeholders. 2.3 The Functions of Classroom Assessment: Formative and Summative Assessment On the basis of the definition of classroom assessment (2.2), classroom assessment may be used as a variety of instruments by teachers to collect data in relation to learners needs, ability, knowledge, understanding and performance in the classroom. This seems to imply the primary role teachers play in classroom assessment process and the importance of linking formative and summative assessment to effectively enhance learners learning and report it to other stakeholders, including parents, other teachers, learners themselves, and school authorities. In this section, the functions of classroom assessment, in terms of formative and summative assessment, will be discussed, particularly with assessment for learning, through a review of the literature in relation to the role of both formative and summative assessment in classrooms. 2.3.1 The Role of Formative and Summative Assessment Classroom teachers are in the front line of assisting learners to develop their ability and enhance their learning, thus, it is crucial for teachers to recognize the different functions and characteristics between formative and summative assessments and to integrate them into everyday teaching and learning. Harlen and James (1997) share the different roles of formative and summative assessment in classroom assessment. They urge the need to distinguish the differences between formative and summative assessment, in terms of the functions and characteristics, and then connect and wave them together. To reveal the complexities of the differences between formative and summative, some research reports have provided a variety of interpretations to help teachers to clarify the concept of formative and summative assessment. According to the report of Task Group on Assessment and Testing, known as TGAT, it defines formative and summative assessment through clarifying the different purposes and timing between them. For formative assessment, teachers may use it to understand the the positive achievements of a pupil (DES/WO, 1988, para. 23) (Oksana: This is quite an old reference, is there anything newer/more recent on this point?)and then plan their teaching in order to help the pupil to reach to the next step. It highlights the dynamic process of teaching and learning in the classroom and more importantly, it points out the future direction through using the results of assessment. Formative assessment is a continuous process of adjusting teachers teaching and learners learning; meanwhile, summative assessment is used for systematic recording of learners overall achievement. In other words, teachers may use summative assessment to note learners performance, such as recording the grade or scores of teacher made and standardized tests, after a certain period of time. In 2001, Clarke expressed similar views in providing a clear illustration for formative and summative assessment: If we think of our children as plantsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦summative assessment of the plants is the process of simply measuring them. The measurements might be interesting to compare and analyse, but, in themselves, they do not affect the growth of the plants. Formative assessment, on the other hand, is the garden equivalent of feeding and watering the plants directly affecting their growth (p2). As can be seen, the main function of formative assessment is to nurture pupils and improve learning, which is a continuous process of interaction between teachers and learners. For instance, in classrooms, teachers provide guidance for learners toward improvement through formative assessment feedback during the processes of teaching and learning. As for summative assessment, it takes place after the teaching and learning. Teachers may grade or make judgments in relation to learners learning in order to inform and report to other stakeholders. In the classroom, teachers use formative assessment to help learners learning as well as modify their own teaching methods and materials. They also use summative assessment to assign grades and report attainment at the end of a school year for administrative purposes (Bachman Palmer 1996). As such, formative assessment requires the ability of the teacher to diagnose learners performance, in terms of what causes him or her to get struck, and to help learner to understand what to learn, how they learn, and how well they have learned. 2.3.2 Formative Classroom Assessment: assessment for learning More recently, the focus of the classroom assessment studies has shifted from forms of test to the interactions between assessment and classroom learning. This shift also highlights the importance of the improvement of learning through formative teacher assessment. Black and Wiliam (1998) review a variety of past research studies in relation to classroom formative assessment. They point out that several empirical studies show evidence to support the claim that improving formative assessment do raise standards and help pupils learning, particularly with low ability pupils. They also present evidence in relation to how teachers use formative assessment practices and strategies to enhance pupils learning in the field of general education. A broader explanation of formative assessment is provided by Black and Wiliam, they illustrate that all those activities undertaken by teachers, and/or by their students, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged (1998, p.7). Their interpretation not only points out that formative assessment activities can be used by both teachers and learners but also indicates how teachers and students use feedback to adjust the teaching and learning. From this perspective, formative assessment is embedded in teaching and learning and can be used to prompt learner learning. Key formative assessment strategies, such as effective teacher feedback, teacher scaffolding, self- and peer- assessment, and raising learners self-esteem and motivation, may be integrated and embedded within teacher-learner(s) interactions(Rea-Dickins 2006). As can be seen, the activities that conduct by teachers, such as observation, teacher made tests, take-home tasks, and learners, including self- and peer- assessment, would provide information to help both teachers and learners improve themselves. Further, Brindley (2001) points out formative assessment should undertake by teachers during the learning process, by doing so, teachers can use the results to improve instruction (p. 137). In addition, Sadler (1989) connects formative assessment with feedback and believes that feedback to teachers and to learners are separate. He suggests that the aim of using feedback for teachers is to diagnose learners performance and modify their teaching in order to help learners to enhance their abilities; meanwhile, for learners, the purpose of using feedback is to monitor their performance and understand their own learning weaknesses and strengths. Further, Tunstall and Gipps (1996, p.393) identify two types of feedback used by teachers in classrooms: evaluative and descriptive feedback respectively. They suggest that the former seems to be more close to affective and conative (effort-based) aspects of learning with a performance goal, whereas the latter places the emphasis on the cognitive development with a mastery goal. Teachers act as facilitators in providing descriptive types of feedback, such as making suggestions and questioning as part of discussion, rather than directing (p. 401). As can be seen, there is a greater links between descriptive feedback and formative assessment. However, Torrance and Pryor (1998) point out that teacher feedback may have a negative influence on learners, for instance, when the teacher tries to correct learners mistakes which may lead to the impression of learners producing wrong answers. It may even be seen as criticism by the pupils and discourage learners self-esteem. Further, teacher feedback with praise may result in encouraging competition among learners instead of increasing learners motivation. Thus, it is important for teachers to recognize the influences and impact of formative assessment feedback on learner motivation and self-esteem. To sum up, classroom assessment is used by teachers to collect data in relation to the process and attainment of learners with aim of responding to individual needs and curricular demands. Formative assessment is crucial in enhancing learner learning and closing the gap between learners actual level and potential level. The following section explored assessment of young language learners in a foreign classroom context through review of past research studies in relation to classroom assessment in practice. 2.4Research on Assessment of Young Learners in the EFL Classrooms In this section, the relevant research studies of classroom assessment of young language learners are explored, followed by introducing a unique Taiwanese educational context, in terms of learning English in private ESL schools, as the classroom assessment context in this research. 2.4.1 Classroom Assessment of Young Language Learners Rea-Dickins (2000) points out that since the 1990s research studies in relation to assessment for foreign language learners has been more in evidence (e.g., Low et al., 1993; McKay et al., 1994; Edelenbos and Johnstone,1996; Breen et al., 1997; Leung and Teasdale, 1997). Language Testing proposes a special issue that is focusing on assessment for young language learners, who ages 5 to about 12, in the school system. The key idea of these reports in this issue is related to a variety of purposes for assessment for young language learners within an early years language learning curriculum which results in raising the awareness of wider issues in relation to assessment of young language learners, such as how the validity of classroom-based assessment is achieved. Teadeale and Leung (2000) draw the attention to the validity of implement alternative assessment and monitoring learners learning performance through teacher assessment. Rea-Dickins and Gardner (2000) also look at the same issue in relation to the implementation of formative classroom assessment, in terms of keeping track of learners language development, in the English as a Second Language (ESL) context. Their findings suggest the potential variables which may influence the validity of teacher assessment during the assessment procedure. This is followed by Gattullo who explores the way to implement formative assessment in the Italian primary foreign language classroom, where English is taught since grade 3 (age 8). She investigates different formative assessment processes through analyzing classroom assessment discourses and she also observes the everyday interactions between teachers and learners. The results suggest that instead of using formative assessment actions which may be m ore beneficial for learning, including observing process, examining product and metacognitive questioning; teachers use more common actions, such as questioning, correcting and judging. Continuing the theme of formative assessment of primary learners in the EFL context, Zangl (2000) provides the methods of assessment to gain information in relation to primary-age learners language skills. She argues that teachers may be able to draw a developmental picture for individual learners, including their general interactional skills and specific language skills, through ongoing assessment throughout primary school. Hasselgren (2000) looks at the innovative ways to develop materials, such as tests, teacher assessment, and learners self-assessment, which can improve both teachers and learners assessment skills in Norwegian primary schools. In the context of Norway, one significant difference is that there is no tradition of testing for young language learners due to local policy. This contributes to high-demand assessment methods, particularly in materials development and task design, and to the implementation of formative assessment, in terms of assessment for learning. Both teachers and learners are encouraged to develop their ability to assess. As can be seen, the national policy is one of important variables that influences teachers attitude towards integrating classroom-based assessment into their everyday language teaching. It is also crucial to take variables, such as learners prior cultural knowledge, teachers knowledge and ability in assessment, and the English curriculum, into account when assessing primary-age learners of English as a foreign language. Teachers should choose and design the appropriate assessment material for Young language learners. The material should be well adapted to learners cognitive and linguistic skills and to their interests. The work of Hasselgren suggests that classroom assessment may be influenced by a variety of factors, particularly by the national policy. These external elements, such as the government policy and English curriculum, may have direct impact on the implementation of assessment, teachers attitude towards classroom assessment and their classroom assessment practices in the EFL context. A brief history of primary school English education in Taiwan is explored in the next section to gain insight into a special English classroom in Taiwan. 2.4.2 ESL Program in Taiwan English teaching and learning for young learners has become increasingly important in Asian countries, such as Taiwan, China, Japan and Korea, where learners study English as a Foreign Language (EFL) over the past few decades. At this point it is useful to clarify some terminology before introducing the English educational context in Taiwan. The term English as a Second Language (ESL) used in countries, , such as Canada, North America and Australia, which refers to learners who are using English as the medium of instruction in school contexts but who are not English first language (L1) speakers (Rea-Dickins, 2000, p. 115). On the other hand, the term English as Foreign Language (EFL) refers to when English is taught to non-native English speakers in non- English speaking areas, such as Europe, Asia, and Africa. In 1997, the Ministry of Education (MOE) in Taiwan decided to implement curricular and instructional reforms in elementary and junior high school education. One of the most significant changes is that English courses are officially introduced in grade 3 (age 9) with two 40-minute lessons per week (Ministry of Education, Republic of China, 2010). Since then, learning English has become a popular movement for young learners from the ages of 5 to 12 across the country. Butler (2004) points out that some Asian countries, such as Korea, Taiwan, and Japan, have introduced English language instruction at the elementary school level, with special focus on oral communication skills. Although the officially suggested starting age is 9, most parents want their children to learn English as soon as possible. The assumption of the younger the better in foreign language acquisition is supported by many Taiwanese parents, who believe an early start will help their children to achieve greater profici ency. These factors above contribute to the significant growth in the number of cram schools and private language schools across the country over the last decade. Cram school also known as abuxiban in Taiwan are very common and popular in competitive Asian countries, particularly in Taiwan and Japan. The aim of these schools is to help pupils to enhance their achievement scores (Harnisch, 1994; Oneil Fukumura, 1992; Stevenson Stigler, 1992). In 1999, a report from China Central News, on 6 April 1999, stated that at least more than one quarter of elementary pupils attend private language institutions after school to learn English. Tsai and Kuo (2008) report that there are more than 5,000 cram schools in Taiwan. Most English cram schools offer additional after-school teaching to enhance pupils English ability. In particular, numerous so-called ESL schools aim to help Taiwanese learners to learn English as a Second Language (ESL) through using American elementary textbooks and teaching all subjects, including handwriting, computer, music, social science, reading, math, science, grammar, phonics and writing, in English. They also offer an ESL p rogram to kindergarten children of 3 years old up to students in grade 6 (age 12). In general, kindergarten pupils and grade 1 to 2 learners receive an average of 4 to 5 lessons a day, each 30 minutes long. As for grade 3 to 6 learners, they receive approximately 2 to 3 lessons a day due to their longer elementary school hours. Such ESL schools provide a unique educational context to investigate these ESL English teachers perceptions of classroom assessment and their own classroom assessment practices.